From ancient times, hunting alongside nomadic pastoralism has played a vital role in the economy of Mongolian people. One unique form of hunting was the use of trained birds of prey—raptors such as hawks, falcons, and eagles—to catch wild animals in their natural habitats. This tradition is known as “shuvuulah” in Mongolian. Historical records show that falconry was especially popular during the Mongol Empire.
More than a source of food or income, falconry represented a profound connection between humans and nature—a symbolic tradition expressing companionship and mutual respect between human and bird.
Falconers train raptors to hunt and return with their prey. Evidence suggests that falconry developed as early as 2000 BCE in ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and parts of Iran), China, and Mongolia.
Mongolians have long revered powerful birds of prey as sacred symbols. They tamed and trained these birds to hunt, incorporating them into daily life. For instance, the shields of Attila the Hun’s warriors reportedly bore falcon imagery, and the Great Seal of the Mongol Empire featured a white falcon. Falcons like the Saker, Gyrfalcon, and Peregrine were commonly used to hunt ducks and geese. Elite falcons were sourced from Lake Baikal, Manchuria, the Far East, Korea, and Bohai.
The Italian explorer Marco Polo described the importance of falconry in his Travels of Marco Polo, noting that “after four days’ journey north lies the Northern Sea, on the islands of which many white falcons live, and the Great Khan captures them at will.” He also mentioned: “The Khan has many eagles trained to hunt wolves, foxes, gazelles, and deer. Some eagles are so large and strong they can bring down wolves. No wolf escapes the curved beak of these birds.”
Falcons were so highly valued that conquered tribes and nations were required to pay tribute in the form of falcons. For instance, Korea’s Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) sent falcons to the Great Khan as tribute, as did Russia. In 1491, Russian Tsar Ivan III negotiated with the Golden Horde to pay white falcons as taxes.
The Secret History of the Mongols recounts that Bodonchar Munkhag, one of the leaders of the Three Rivers tribes, caught and trained a grey hawk using a trap made from his horse’s mane, and used it to hunt birds. A 13th-century aristocrat’s burial site in Sukhbaatar Province revealed a belt buckle depicting a white falcon. The text also praises Chinggis Khan’s adviser Bo’orchu, comparing him to a decisive and fearless falcon.
Mongolians used to place a silver ring inscribed with the owner’s name on the leg of their trained raptor. This practice is believed to have influenced modern bird banding for research purposes.
Falconry diminished during the Qing Dynasty’s rule over Mongolia but was revived over 300 years later. Its decline was partly due to the rise of firearm hunting. However, falconry has survived and evolved into a sport and cultural tradition.
The primary birds used in Mongolian falconry are falcons and hawks. Falconers usually train their birds by feeding them pigeons. Training begins with spending time observing the bird, allowing it to perch on the hand, and helping it get used to being unhooded. This bonding process, called “keeping the bird awake,” involves close interaction. The bird is tethered at the ankle to limit movement and is kept active during the day and roosted on a perch at night.
To train the bird, a falconer stands about 30 steps away with bait—typically small pieces of raw meat—and calls the bird by name once the hood is removed. The falcon flies to the bait and is rewarded with food.
In English, a person who hunts with falcons is called a falconer, while those using hawks or eagles are called austringers. Nowadays, species like the red-tailed hawk and Harris’s hawk are often used. Raptors are also used to control harmful birds and rodents in cities, airports, and large facilities.
In 2000, the “Club of Bird-of-Prey Enthusiasts” was established in Mongolia. It expanded into the “Mongolian Association of Bird-of-Prey Enthusiasts” in 2005 and the “Mongolian Falconry Society” in 2014. These organizations work to revive traditional falconry, educate the public, and rehabilitate injured birds.
On November 16, 2010, falconry was inscribed by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, following a submission by the UAE and 11 other nations. Since then, this date is celebrated as “World Falconry Day.”
Among Kazakh falconers, golden eagles are used to hunt large prey such as wolves. Falcons such as the saker and gyrfalcon are used to hunt bustards, cranes, jerboas, and hares. In the wild, falcons live around 15–20 years, while captive birds can live up to 25 years.
According to Mongolian law, citizens may capture and train birds of prey for cultural purposes. A saker falcon can be worth up to 16 million MNT (approx. $5,000 USD) on the international market, especially for export to Arab countries. A person wishing to train a falcon must pay a government fee of 3.6 million MNT, while the fee for a golden eagle is 87,000 MNT.
Falconers in Mongolia have been conducting saker falcon research for over 25 years. They have developed methods for captive breeding and reintroduction into the wild. In the past 50 years, they pioneered the use of radio transmitters and satellite tracking on raptors to monitor migration routes and identify suitable habitats.