The ancestors of the Mongols, the Xiongnu (Hunnu), were known to hold grand feasts and celebrations, which were recorded in ancient Chinese chronicles. The tradition of celebrating the “Three Manly Games”—wrestling, horse racing, and archery—as a state festival began in the early 13th century. These three games, in which Mongolians demonstrate strength through wrestling, skill in archery, and speed with horse racing, have deep historical roots.
In 1206, the Year of the Red Tiger, following the declaration of the Great Mongol Empire, the tradition of holding Naadam as a state-level ceremony was formally established. Up until the time of Ligdan Khan in 1634, a total of 37 khans had organized the Three Manly Games as a major state celebration. Even at the level of the military units known as tumens and thousands, Naadam was regularly held.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, with the spread of Yellow Buddhism in Mongolia, religious elements began to influence the festival. For instance, in 1639, at Shireet Tsagaan Lake in present-day Övörkhangai Province, the five-year-old son of Tusheet Khan Gombodorj, Zanabazar, was declared the spiritual head of Yellow Buddhism in Khalkha Mongolia through a ceremony called “Bat-Orshil.”
In September 1778, the Emperor of the Qing Dynasty issued a decree formalizing the structure of Naadam, instructing that it be held as both a civil and religious celebration, including mountain worship. Thus, the Tusheet Khan and Setsen Khan provinces began worshipping Bogd Khan Mountain, while the Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan provinces honored Otgontenger Mountain. This evolved into what became famously known as the “Danshig Naadam.”
Following the victory of the People’s Revolution, the first national-level Naadam was held at Buyant-Ukhaa in 1922. Known historically as the “Military Naadam,” it marked a shift in purpose. From 1923 onward, the festival came to be celebrated annually as the Anniversary of the People’s Revolution.
In June 2003, the State Great Khural (Parliament) of Mongolia passed the “Law on the National Naadam Festival.” Today, the National Naadam Festival is celebrated at the levels of state, province (aimag), city (capital), and district (sum), making it a uniquely widespread event observed simultaneously across the nation.
What was once a demonstration of physical strength among real men has now grown into a fully-fledged national celebration, preserving tradition while embracing modernity.
Mongolian Wrestling: Tradition, Ranking, and Rituals
Mongolian wrestling can be regarded as a sport that emphasizes agility, skill, and sophisticated techniques. Wrestlers compete in vast open fields without time restrictions, following intricate ceremonial movements and wearing traditional garments with symbolic meaning. According to tradition, the highest-ranked wrestler stands at the left forefront position. Wrestlers select their opponents according to rank, with higher-ranked wrestlers choosing their match from the remaining field.
The ranking system in Mongolian wrestling includes the following titles: Darkhan Avarga (invincible champion), Dayan Avarga, Avarga (champion), Arslan (lion), Gariid (garuda), Zaan (elephant), Khartsaga (falcon), and Nachin (hawk). The highest rank for provincial-level wrestlers is Arslan, and for district-level wrestlers, it is Zaan. Youth wrestlers are awarded titles such as Tulgat, Shonkhor (falcon), Shandas, and Khartsaga. Regardless of how many wrestlers compete, the overall winner is titled Arslan, those reaching the top four become Zaan, the top sixteen become Nachin, and the top sixty-four receive the Khartsaga title. Upon re-confirming their rank in later competitions, wrestlers receive decorative additions to their title.
Wrestlers perform various types of ceremonial eagle-like steps called develt. These are classified as small, medium, ceremonial (khangal), and grand. If 128 or more wrestlers compete, the initial small step is used. At the 64-wrestler stage, Khartsaga and Shonkhor steps are performed. At the 32 or 16-wrestler stage, Nachin steps are done—these are all considered medium steps. Reaching the final four (semi-finals), wrestlers perform the Khangarid (mythical bird) step, known as the ceremonial step. In the final two, wrestlers perform the grand step, which consists of all four steps executed in sequence. Spectators who arrive late can usually identify which round the match is in based on the wrestler’s stepping ritual.
A wrestler never lifts a hand off his coach’s (zasuul’s) shoulder during the pre-match ritual, symbolizing the bond between falcon and falconer. They flap their raised arm and circle back to rest their hand on the coach’s shoulder again, similar to a falcon eager to take flight. The zasuul asks, “Shall I release you?” to which the wrestler replies, “Release me,” and the coach removes his hat—symbolically removing the falcon’s blindfold before the hunt. At that moment, the wrestler lunges forward and performs an eagle-like leap, scanning the field like a bird from the sky. Wrestlers do not speak during the competition; all communication is done through ritual and movement.
When a wrestler enters the ring, he slaps his thighs three times before approaching his zasuul, symbolizing a readiness to show strength—the number three representing power in Mongolian culture. Upon arriving at the center of the field, he slaps the front and back of his thighs, symbolizing that he accepts victory or defeat with honor. The term for defeating an opponent is orkhikh (to throw down). The defeated wrestler respectfully ducks under the winner’s arm, signifying admiration and respect.
Starting from the third round, wrestlers begin to announce the title of their left- and right-most leaders during matches, a gesture believed to boost morale and entertain the crowd.
The traditional wrestling hat resembles the ancient helmets of Mongolian warriors. Wrestling boots are strong, supportive, and minimize injury risk during leg techniques. The zodog shuudag (wrestling outfit) is a ceremonial garment symbolizing strength and heritage. These are made from high-quality silk or cloth, sewn with tendons of cattle, and finished with sturdy leather laces. The boots, tightly-fitting zodog (upper garment), and shuudag (shorts) are all designed for strength, grip, and performance, while also highlighting the wrestler’s physique.
The zodog is a short-sleeved top with two sleeves and a small back panel called the dalbaa. The dalbaa features a decorative waistband tied with silk cords and reinforced edges for durability. The shuudag are tight-fitting shorts with close-stitched silk cords along the hem to increase durability. Embellished with symbols such as the garuda, dragon, lion, and tiger—representing strength—the outfit also often includes symbolic patterns of power. In modern times, they are even made from parachute materials to increase strength and resilience.
Mongolian Traditional Horse Racing
In Ulaanbaatar and across Mongolia’s provinces and districts, an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 horses participate in annual races. If a racehorse’s training and preparation are inadequate, it may not run even 10 kilometers; however, with proper conditioning, it can cover distances of 40 or 50 kilometers and still reach the finish line. Trainers select horses with proven bloodlines and condition them throughout the four seasons. About a month before the Naadam festival, they begin a special training regimen, adjusting the horse’s diet and water intake accordingly.
Horses are categorized into six age groups for racing: stallions, adult horses (ikh nas), five-year-olds (soyolon), four-year-olds (khazaalan), three-year-olds (shudlen), and two-year-olds (daaga). Adult horses race over 25 kilometers, stallions and soyolon over 20 kilometers, khazaalan 18 kilometers, shudlen 15 kilometers, and daaga 10 kilometers.
The essential tools of a horse trainer include a bridle, bit, hoof scraper, brush, hoof bandage, a whip made from deer shinbone, and a child-sized saddle. According to the law, jockeys must be between 7 and 13 years old and must be covered by accident insurance. Helmets, knee pads, and elbow guards are mandatory for protection. Traditionally, to keep the child jockey light, they are not fed anything heavier than millet.
The attire of jockeys—shirt, shovootoi (hat), pants, vest, and cloak—is decorated with symbolic patterns such as birds, the soyombo symbol, butterflies, or five-pointed stars, all representing speed and good fortune for the horse.
Before racing, the child jockeys circle the Naadam field three times and chant a traditional giingoo melody to excite and awaken the horses. The giingoo consists of prolonged, melodic chants equal in length to the count of 32. Spectators often gather around a child with a beautiful voice, and their horses respond with actions like stretching, pawing at the ground, or gazing into the distance. The giingoo chant is considered a spiritual invocation of Damdinsamdüv (Hayankhyarvaa), the deity of horses, and is believed to invoke blessings from the guardian spirit of horses.
According to legend, a poor boy named Giin once came to the royal Naadam festival with his young horse Gоо. The nobility tried to prevent him from entering the race, but when he sang the giingoo so beautifully, the crowd was moved and allowed him to participate. From then on, giingoo chanting became a part of the tradition.
The winning horse is given the honorary title Tümenii Ekh (“Leader of the People”). To add humor and joy to the festivities, the child who finishes last in the foal race (daaga) is humorously awarded the title Bayankhodoog (“Fat Stomach”). The child is brought to the main stage, and a cooked sheep’s stomach is tied to their saddlebag, treating them just like the winner. The crowd wishes them: “Be this year’s Bayankhodoog, and next year’s champion!”
Trainers earn honorary titles based on their horses’ racing records. A trainer whose horse has won four times or placed in the top five eight times is titled “National Distinguished Trainer” (Ulsyn Aldart Uyach). If the horse wins six races or places twelve times, the trainer earns the title “National Leading Trainer” (Ulsyn Manlai Uyach). A trainer whose horse has won ten races or placed twenty times is awarded the highest title: “National Premier Trainer” (Ulsyn Tod Manlai Uyach).
Archery: A Timeless Mongolian Tradition
Many scholars agree that archery is one of the oldest sports in human history. Its origins trace back to the Stone Age when early humans used simple bow-like tools for hunting. Over time, these primitive bows evolved, particularly during the era of Mongolia’s first state, the Hunnu Empire. Skilled artisans of the Huns transformed the basic bow into a complex composite weapon with a wooden core, horn belly, and sinew backing—a design that closely resembles the modern Mongolian bow.
Originally a tool for hunting and warfare, the bow and arrow eventually became a key element in festive celebrations and public competitions. This transition marked the beginning of Mongolia’s long-standing tradition of archery, making it at least 2,000 years old. Over centuries, arrow designs also evolved—featuring bronze or iron arrowheads and feathered shafts to enhance accuracy. Various types of bows—crafted from sinew, horn from deer, moose, ibex, or ox—reflect the deep connection between Mongolian craftsmanship and nomadic lifestyle.
As one of the “Three Manly Games,” archery was once organized in unique stages: mergen (master), shil, noyon (lord), baatar (hero), dald (fading), and shuvtarga (rising star). The “mergen” stage featured elite archers, while “dald” included retiring ones, and “shuvtarga” welcomed promising new talents. Over time, the structure of the sport expanded and formalized, eventually leading to the three current archery styles: Khalkh, Uriankhai, and Buryat.
Ancient Ball-Shooting Game
One of the oldest military-sport hybrids in Mongolia is the “ball-shooting” game, believed to have originated in the Hunnu and Khitan periods. This game allowed soldiers to train while enjoying peaceful moments. Archers on horseback would gallop past vertical poles set at intervals of 10 meters, aiming to hit targets suspended from the top—usually three small balls. As the game evolved, the poles were placed closer together, increasing the challenge and requiring greater speed and precision. The game continued into the Bogd Khanate era, where records indicate that skilled archers could hit every target.
The Bow and Arrow in Mongolian Life
Since ancient times, the composite Mongolian bow has been a crucial part of everyday life. By the 13th century, nearly every household owned a bow and arrow, and women also participated in archery. Mongolians used three types of bows: composite bows, fine-crafted bows, and bearing bows. A traditional bow consists of six parts: string (khövch), limbs (gichir), central body (ikh bie), grip (bariul), back (shiir), and belly (khaiguul).
An archer carries four arrows made from lightweight wood such as birch. The arrows must be uniform in length and weight. Gobi dwellers tend to use strong, straight-shooting bows, while people in forested (khangai) areas favor lighter, curved bows aimed upward.
Archers also carry essential accessories: a thumb ring, arm guard, belt with an arrow holder (khobd), and a bow case (khormsog).
Uriankhai Archery
The Uriankhai people traditionally held their archery competitions on the 15th day of the first month of spring. They would stretch a cowhide target across three poles tied together at the top and shoot from a distance of around 50 meters. This form of archery has become an official category in the Naadam festival. Today, instead of cowhide, a rolled leather target called a “chikh” (ear) is used. Each participant shoots four arrows to test their accuracy.
The first ear-shaped target is called “magnai” (forehead). When it is hit, spectators cheer, “The magnai is split!” The second is called “tegnee” (shoulder), the third “ganzaga” (waist), and the fourth “uya” (tie or tether). After shooting, the team and each participant’s results are tallied.
Uriankhai archery is believed to have originated from religious rituals. It was often practiced during the Maidar circumambulation ceremonies and was thought to summon good fortune. Therefore, Uriankhai people would hold archery contests on holidays or during misfortunes to invoke blessings. Traditionally, each archer shoots five arrows at the saranpai target from around 50 meters away. Today, cowhide targets are replaced by rolled leather, still referred to as “chikh.” If a competitor fails to hit at least two “ears,” they are penalized by a ritual called “khamba suulgana”—meaning they lose the right to shoot, a kind of symbolic punishment.s.
Buryat Archery
The Buryat archery target is cylindrical in shape, about 8 by 10 centimeters. To set up the shooting range, leather targets are laid in a single row and a shooting line is marked 2.2 meters away. Buryat bows and arrows have distinctive features. Traditionally, bows were made with horn at the center (the “belly”), and the arrows were mostly crafted from bamboo. In many regions, the horn was made from yak, while in others it was made from deer or elk antlers.
Bows came in various lengths, categorized as “big-hand” or “small-hand” depending on the archer’s height. Over time, Buryat archery and equipment evolved—targets that were once made of leather are now often made of wool or fabric, and arrows no longer include “takh” (a type of feather fletching or tip). The current Buryat target remains cylindrical and is set 2.2 meters from the shooting line, known as “zurakhai” or “ganga” in some regions. In some places, the entire range is referred to as “zurakhai.”
Khalkh Archery
Khalkh archery has two main types: “khanan” (wall shooting) and “khasaa” (cluster shooting). In khanan, a target net 3 meters wide and 40 centimeters tall is set up, and any arrow landing inside is counted as a hit. In khasaa, 30 spherical, braided leather balls (“sur”) are arranged into stacks called “dombos”—twelve in total. Across both ends, three surs are placed horizontally, forming the “khüzee” (neck). The central two dombos are red. The line in front of the targets is called the “zurkhai” (shooting line), and the sets of three surs on either side are known as “azarga” (stallions).
In khasaa archery, only men participate, shooting 20 arrows. Men shoot 40 arrows from 75 meters, while women shoot 20 arrows from 60 meters. Arrows are shot in groups of four, and judges cheer from the line to encourage archers. In children’s competitions, the shooting distance is calculated by multiplying the child’s age by 4 for boys, and by 3 for girls, provided they are under 18. Each child shoots 20 times.
Archery Chants (Uukhai)
In traditional archery, there are three types of chants: the inviting chant, the celebratory chant when hitting the target, and the welcoming chant used by the scoreboard. These chants not only praise the archer’s skill but are also considered a form of musical art.
Winners in archery are awarded honorary titles:
- One win: “State Marksman” (Ulsyn Mergen)
- Two wins: “Double State Marksman”
- Three wins: “Exceptional State Marksman”
- Four wins: “Outstanding State Marksman”
- Five wins: “Nationwide Renowned Marksman”
- Six wins: “Master State Marksman”